Paganism History Essays - Religion, Wicca, Mother Goddesses

Paganism History Over 25,000 years ago, our ancestors across the continent practiced an ancient form of religion known as paganism. During the Neolithic and Paleolithic time era, our ancestors were in awe of the great manifestations of nature. Due to lack of scientific thought, they were riddled with ignorance and superstition. Everything had a supernatural explanation. They associated each naturalistic phenomena with a type of god, inscribing inanimate objects with life -like characteristics .This practice is referred to as animism. Every element ,be it thunder ,rain or the sun ,was thought to be a god (or goddess) within it. Eventually their gods became an object of worship known as polytheism. Eventually many forms of polytheism evolved to what is known as paganism. Modern Paganism Now defined as :The worship of a god or goddess whose roots are in pre-Christian Western Europe. Modern paganism is alive and well today. It consists of many sub-divisions .These include ~Wicca ,druidism Santeria and many others. Wicca focuses on the worship of a god and goddess .In Wicca ,there is a plethora of pantheon of deities that one can choose from including: Greek, Norse ,roman etc...... Focusing on a Greek Wiccan tradition ,this will be describing the pagan festival of Hectare. The Festival of Hecate The festival of Hecate is celebrated between the 3rd and 4th Saturday of August. (which ever is closest to the new moon) It is in honor of the Greek goddess Hecate. She was first worshipped in ancient Greece -called the triple goddess of magic. She is often represented in triple form ; maiden (youth) ,mother (fertility) and crone (the wise woman). In ancient Rome ,she was known as trevia ,the cross road with three paths. Hecate is symbolized by the phases of the moon. Each attribute correlates with a particular phase of the moon. The waxing moon (maiden),the full moon (mother) and the new moon( crone). The Ceremony~ Upon arrival at the festival in Georgetown Delaware, everyone gathers for the lecture. This is to educate the newcomers as to what the ceremony entails. The ceremony is always rehearsed before it is performed. After the lecture ,there is a large potluck feast to keep everyone energized for the evenings festivities. The processional~ When the sun sets, the processional begins. With everyone in their appropriate magical attire,(consisting of a robe and jewelry) everyone lines up proceeds with the first phase. This is called consecration- each person is consecrated . This is done by covering the body in incense smoke and sprinkling of water. This is a purification process that cleanses the body of negative energy prior to the ritual. Next each person is permitted to enter the circle one by one. Once everyone is inside the circle, the next phase begins. Calling of the quarters~ At this point ,the high priest/priestess begins the calling of the quarters or summoning the elements. Each direction is marked by an altar and each is represented by an element. West =air, east=water , north=earth and south=fire. The high priest approaches each point ,says a chant and ends the chant with the phrase ""hail and welcome"". After the elements are called , the highpoint of the ritual begins ~ the invocation The Invocation~ The invocation is where the goddess is invited to attend the ceremony. The invitation is done through a series of chants . Ex: ""He Kau ,He Kau , He Kau"" Hecate trevia trimorphos Hecate queen of the moon and all her phases"" 3 X''s (Hek a ta) Next 3 women are chosen to represent Hecate ,each representing one of her aspects.(they are chosen prior to the ritual) The maiden is in white (purity) the mother in red (fertility) and crone in black(wisdom) These women remain in the circle. At this point the goddess speaks to the participants .Each one gives a brief message ,usually a blessing or advice. Once the crone has finished, each participant is invited to approach any of the three forms and speak to them. They may ask for advice ,offering or a boon. Once everyone has had their turn to speak with Hecate,the group becomes silent. The goddess is thanked and dismissed. Sometimes during a ritual a participant may feel a bit overwhelmed with the energy that has been raised. It is for this reason ,that the next phase ,called grounding takes place. This is done by simply placing the hands on the ground and releasing the energy. Once the grounding has been performed,it is time to close the quarters or dismiss the elements. Like the opening , the

Motivating the workforce

Internal Labour Markets/ Motivating the workforce Introduction Labor economics is an integral part of economics because it explains how the labor market functions and operates and its dynamics. The labor market is the market where workers and employees interact. This means that there are suppliers of labor and the people who need that labor.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Internal Labour Markets/ Motivating the workforce specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The suppliers in this case are the workers or employees and the people who demand the labor are the employers. Smith states that the principal agent relationship always occurs in the labor market where the principals entrust the agents with their businesses. (Smith, 2003 89) The principal in this case is the owner of the business and the agent is the manager who will manage the business on behalf of the owner Principal agent relationship The principal agent relationship can be defined as an arrangement or a contract between one person called a principal and the other called an agent to carry out some work. Currie and Wolpin state that a principal can be anyone who is legally able to carry out an act. Legally able means that they are mentally stable and they are not minors. An agent can be anyone who is qualified enough to comprehend the act that is being done by the principal. (Currie Wolpin, 2001 54) The principal agent relationship is also called the agency relationship. A contract that is signed by an agent on behalf of the principal is the contract of the principal and therefore the principal has the right to exercise any term that are in the contract for example the principal can give anyone authority to perform specific or general duties. The agency relationship can be either formal where there has to be a valid contract or some writing or informal where there is no valid contract or any kind of writing that is authorizing the agent to act on behalf of the principal. The agency relation ship must also be legal. This means that the agent and principal should engage in legal activities It is evident that in the principal agent relationship, the agent is acting on behalf of the principal. The agent therefore has to act under the authority of the principal. This relationship is based upon trust and loyalty from both sides but especially from the agent. The agent has to convince the principal that he will follow his instructions to the latter and that he will not be negligent when carrying out any of the works entrusted to him by the principal. Hirshleifer et al postulate that the relationship is also based on the assumption that the agent is to act ethically and therefore he will not take advantage of the task at hand for his personal gains or satisfaction. (Hirshleifer et al, 2005 169)The principal in turn should exude a lot of confidence in his agent and also act ethically. These bases will ensure that there is a strong bond, trust and understanding between the two p arties and hence a fruitful relationship.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The agent has an obligation to be truthful to the principal all the time and disclose all the necessary and important information that affect the business or the task at hand or any other factors that affect the agency relationship. The agent should also refrain from any activities that may harm the agency relationship The principal agent problem The principal agent problem always arises where there is misleading information or information that is not symmetrical or complete when a principal hires an agent. Both the principal and the agent will try to satisfy their needs and sometimes they can do that at the expense of one another and therefore a problem arises. Information that is not symmetrical is caused when the two parties both have different economic information that is used in economic decisions. The differences in economic information affect a lot of decisions that are made daily. The moral hazard problem is one of the causes of a principal agent problem. It occurs when one party gives misleading information to the other so that they can satisfy themselves. Jollands et al postulate that the moral hazard problem is related to adverse selection and information not being symmetrical. In all these cases, one party in the relationship always has access to more information than the other and he uses this information badly to benefit himself. (Jollands et al, 2007 78) The party is always insured from risk and therefore he can act unethically for example if the agent is insured, he has financial security and therefore he can engage in risky contracts that may be harmful to the business or to the task at hand. The principal agent relationship can arise among various parties for instance the manager and the shareholders. Shareholders entrust the managers to act on their b ehalf and manage for them their businesses. A problem will occur when the managers act unethically to satisfy their personal needs at the expense of the business or the shareholders’ wealth. Another principal agent relationship is between the insurer and the insured. An agent principal problem will arise when the insurer incase of a loss gives false information regarding the hazard that occurred so as to gain falsely. It may also arise when the insured does not take all the facts into account regarding a loss and therefore gives less compensation to the insurer. The principal agent problem can also be looked at in a different dimension. Surhone, Timpledon and Marseken state that in economics, the principal agent relationship occurs when one party who is the principal, motivates the other party who is the agent to act on his behalf. (Surhone, Timpledon Marseken 2009, 54)Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Internal Labour Markets/ Motivating the workforc e specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The problem mostly arises when one party gains at the expense of another for example when the principal motivates or compensates the agent when he carries out certain activities that benefit the principal but are costly to him. Such problems occur when the contract between the principal and the agent was signed under inaccurate or incomplete information and therefore renders it vague or when the contract was signed under a lot of uncertainties and risks. Geetika et al state that in these cases, there is little information regarding the contract and the duties that are supposed to be performed or even the goals that are supposed to be satisfied and therefore they have to provide the agents with incentives and compensation packages to motivate them so that they can act ethically and in a way that the principals would like them to act so as to accomplish the tasks at hand and to enable the principals to gain. (Geetika et al, 2005 302) The principal therefore has to apply different methods in trying to motivate the agents but also benefiting their personal needs and accomplishing their goals and objectives for example the principal can change the way the task is carried out or the way to run the business so that even if the agents act in a way that they satisfy their personal goals, then the goals of the principal are also satisfied or if they make decisions or choices that benefit their self interests, these decisions and choices will also be the same as the decisions that the principal would have made or the choices that the principal would have taken Ways of motivating the agent to act ethically To get rid of the agency problem, the principal must motivate or compensate the agents so that they can act in a way that the principal would wish them to act. Principals can use the employment contracts to motivate or compensate the agents. According to Bolton and Dewatripont, the contracts in clude the ways in which the work is to be performed, the levels of performance required, the measure of that performance and the appraisal and compensation process. (Bolton Dewatripont, 2005 135) Contracts vary in nature because of the difference in the type of work being done and the difference in the nature of the relationship Principals can also use non financial compensation packages to compensate their agents. This involves motivation using other methods that do not involve money. This may include appraisal and recognition or provision of higher authority or the permission to engage in activities that may benefit the agent at a personal level. Every employer takes pride in their work and this is no exception for the agents. Smart states that introduction of performance related pay will therefore reduce the pride of the agent because it will be based more on economic terms between the agent and the principal and the principal will not appreciate the work of the agent. (Smart, 2 010 208)The principal should therefore avoid such methods of remunerationAdvertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The principal can also motivate the agent by improving the working conditions under which the agent is working. The principal should not put so many strict rules and he should allow the agent to be flexible when carrying out his duties and when making decisions that affect the business. Ways of solving the principal agent problem The principal can however undertake certain actions to try and solve the problems that arise from the principal agent relationship. First, the principal can give threats of firing the agent incase of any unethical actions by the agent or incase of any losses by the principal arising form the actions of the agent. McConnell, Brue and Macpherson state that these threats will enable the agent act ethically and in a manner that the principal may want them to act so as to avoid being fired and losing their jobs. (McConnell, Brue Macpherson, 2003 218) Secondly, the principal can take over the work that is being done by the agent, the business or the company and do it alone or give it to another person to do it. This will leave the agent jobless. Lane and Ersson postulate that threats of take over will ensure that the agent acts ethically or appropriately and provides all the information needed by the principals so that they can benefit the principals and ensure that they achieve their goals in due time. (Lane Ersson, 2000 174) The agent will try as much as possible to satisfy the needs of the principal so that they do no not lose their jobs when the principal takes over the business. Another way of solving the principal agent problem is by rewarding the agent. When an agent acts ethically and satisfies the needs and goals of the principal, the principal should reward him so that he can feel motivated and act in the same way always. When the agent is motivated they will always act rationally and ethically and will always aim at ensuring that the principals benefit from their actions Conclusion The principal agent relationship is very commo n and it has proven to work where there is trust and commitment between the two parties. Loyalty is also important in such a relationship and the terms of the contract should be well defined and stated to avoid any misunderstandings References Bolton, P Dewatripont, M. (2005) Contract theory. Massachusetts: MIT Press. Pp. 724 Currie, M. J Wolpin, I. K. (2001) Labor economics. New York: Routledge. Pp. 165 Geetika et al. (2008) Managerial economics. London: McGraw-Hill publishers. Pp. 538 Hirshleifer, J et al. (2005) Price theory and applications: decisions, markets, and information. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 614 Jollands, N et al. (2007) Mind the gap: quantifying principal-agent problems in energy efficiency. New York: OECD Publishing. Pp. 219 Lane, E. J Ersson, O. S. (2000) the new institutional politics: performance and outcomes. New York: Routledge. Pp. 329 McConnell, R. C. Brue, L. S Macpherson, A.D. (2003) Contemporary labor economics. London: McGraw-Hill. E d 6. Pp. 654 Smart, C.J. (2010) Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research. Canada: Springer. Pp. 569 Smith, W. S. (2003) Labor economics. New York: Routledge. Ed 2. pp. 448 Surhone, M. L. Timpledon, T. M Marseken, F. S (2009) Principal-agent Problem: Information Asymmetry, Profit Sharing, Performance Measurement, Efficiency Wages, Dual Labor Market, Time and Motion Study, Off-balance-sheet, Contract Theory, Agency. London: Betascript publishers. Pp. 128

Environmental Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Environmental Economics - Essay Example It is the study of environmental policies and to see how well the businesses abide by these when striving for profits. The major and common costs that these companies levy are air pollution, noise pollution, toxic and solid waste in water harming the water quality and global warming. Since about a decade, these environmental hazards have kept increasing extremely rapidly and rampantly. Thus, there is a now a sense of urgency to get rid of these problems completely. However, this has become very difficult; millions of policies have been formulated by the government and various organizations, but is they still do not produce the desirable results. One another major issue that has been faced since many years is the 'carbon emission'. Coal is one of the biggest energy resource currently used; it accounts for 50% of the electricity produced in the United States. Today, fossil fuels are a source of 80% of the world's energy needs; coal accounts for 25%, natural gas 21%, petroleum oil 34%, nuclear 6.5%, hydro power 2.2%, and biomass and waste 11%. The resources that are environmental friendly such as geothermal, solar and wind are responsible for only a measly 0.4% of the overall demand in the world. The US alone produces 1.5 billion tons of carbon dioxide from coal-burning power plants. Also, it produces great amounts of nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, mercury emissions and other combustible gases when coal is burned. This makes it very clear how harmful the usage of coal is for our environment. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology conducted a study and made a report called 'The Future Coal' in which they examined all developing countries that try to alleviate global warming and their usage of coal. This report discusses the hazards of global warming and how countries should restrict the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. It also focuses on how coal remains and important and indispensable part of every country's production, how there is a need to control the carbon emissions and then how these countries need to take care of emissions yet make use of coal to meet urgent and large energy needs. However, at the same time, this reports deals with future technologies that can be used in place of coal to meet the goal of reduced coal emissions. The main reason why businesses and producers go for coal is that it is inexpensive and abundant. Coal can be used at only a cheap cost of $1 - $2 for each MMBtu compared to $6- $12 for gas and oil (The Future Coal, 2007). Also, coal mines are evenly distributed and spread and can be found everywhere, for example United States, China, India etc; except for only a few regions such as Persian Gulf, where instead are huge oil and gas reserves. The non-carbon emitting resources, mainly nuclear and renewable, are not available everywhere; thus, these areas still rely on coal despite all the policies and awareness of carbon hazards. The positive point of following this report is that it does not advocate certain policies that improve the environment; it diverts all its findings towards the technologies that can be used if these policies are actually followed by people. It is only natural to ask for an alternative if a certain act is prohibited; and that is exactly what The Future Coal is focusing on. This study focuses on technologies that